Two-Level Games
最近幾年有許多人講"Two-Level Games"，
討論的起點都是 Robert D. Putnam 在1988年那一篇，
我在網路上找到蠻簡潔的摘要，提供有興趣的人參考：
Notes for Putnam
Putnam: The Logic of Two Level Games
Putnam discusses whether domestic politics influence international
politics or vice-versa and his answer is both. He advocates “general
equilibrium” theories which account simultaneously for the interaction
ofdomestic and international theories. According to him, the politics
of many international negotiations canbe conceived as a two-levelgame:
Level I — bargaining between the negotiators, leading to a tentative
agreement.
Level II — separate discussions within each group of constituents about
whether to ratify the agreement.
The requirement that any Level I agreement must in the end be ratified
at Level II imposes a crucialtheoretical link between the two levels.
The "win set" for a given Level II constituency is the set of all possible
Level I agreements that would "win", i.e. gain the necessary majority
among the constituents, when simply voted up or down. Level II win sets
are very important for understanding Level I agreements because — 1)
larger win sets make Level I agreement more likely and 2) the relative
size of the respective Level II win sets will affect the distribution of
the joint gains from the international bargain: the larger the perceived
win set of a negotiator, the more he can be pushed around by other Level I
negotiators.
Three factors affect win set size —
1) the distribution of power, preferences and possible coalitions among
Level II constituents
2) Level II political institutions
3) the strategies of the Level I negotiator.
Three other factors affect the relationship between the two levels —
1) uncertainty can be a bargainingdevice or a stumbling block: uncertainty
about the size of an opponent’s win set can increase the risk of
involuntary defection but at the same time negotiators have an incentive
to understate their own win setsand mislead their opponent
2) international pressures can reverberate within domestic politics tipping
the domestic balance and thus influencing international negotiations
3) the role of the chief negotiator and hispreferences can have a powerful
impact.
(http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~olau/ir/archive/put1.pdf）
--
"An individual has not start living until he can rise above
the narrow confines of his individualistic concerns to the
broader concerns of all humanity." ----- Martin Luther King Jr.
--
※ 發信站: 批踢踢實業坊(ptt.cc)
◆ From: 218.160.56.245
※ 編輯: Librafred 來自: 218.160.56.245 (06/24 00:04)